In conclusion, high-intensity inspiratory muscle training improves inspiratory muscle function in subjects with moderate-to-severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, yielding meaningful reductions in dyspnoea and fatigue. A majority of survivors (69%) were able to ambulate >100 feet at RICU discharge. It can be applied as a single technique or as a combination of techniques including intrapulmonary percussive ventilation (IPV). Therefore, in all COPD guidelines PR is considered an essential component of long-term management and is recommended above a moderate degree of severity. Recently developed assessment techniques may provide new insights into the effect of airway clearance techniques.  Pharmacologic therapy is used to reduce symptoms, reduce frequency and severity of exacerbations, and improve health status and exercise tolerance. Prevalence estimates of the disorder show considerable variability across populations, suggesting that risk factors can affect populations differently. Patients in the control group performed only treadmill walking tests on days 1, 5, and 10. Early pulmonary rehabilitation, compared with usual care, led to significant improvements in median incremental shuttle walk distance (60 metres, 95% confidence interval 26.6 metres to 93.4 metres, P = 0.0002), mean SGRQ total score (-12.7, -5.0 to -20.3, P = 0.002), all four domains of the CRQ (dyspnoea 5.5, 2.0 to 9.0, P = 0.003; fatigue 5.3, 1.9 to 8.8, P = 0.004; emotion 8.7, 2.4 to 15.0, P = 0.008; and mastery 7.5, 4.2 to 10.7, P < 0.001) and the mental component score of the SF-36 (20.1, 3.3 to 36.8, P = 0.02). Chest wall motion was studied focusing on amplitude and phase relation of rib cage and abdominal motion. ... As a comprehensive care plan is needed for patients from COPD, pulmonary rehabilitation programs are considered to boost the treatment program, control symptoms, and enhance the practical capacity in these patients (9). http:// www.nelh.nhs.uk/cochrane.asp/www.nelh.nhs.uk/cochrane. There was no change in intercostal muscle activity at different time points (p = 0.8). Main results: All techniques were well tolerated, and oxygen saturation and pulmonary function did not change significantly during and after treatments. Selection criteria: The imposed pattern induced a progressive decline in the high-frequency (150-350 Hz)/low-frequency (20-40 Hz) power ratio (H/L) of the diaphragm electromyogram (fatigue pattern), quantitatively similar to that seen in normal subjects breathing with similar TTdi levels. Exercise capacity was determined by an incremental symptom-limited cycle ergo- meter test. The effectiveness of PR is confirmed with the highest level of evidence especially for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Quality of life (QoL) scores changed significantly over 6 months (P<0.001). We undertook a cost/utility analysis in conjunction with a randomised controlled clinical trial of pulmonary rehabilitation versus standard care. We conclude that early activity is feasible and safe in respiratory failure patients. Studies undertaken during acute exacerbations demonstrated relatively large gains in respiratory function irrespective of airway clearance technique. Furthermore, the results of significant changes in all parameters were not statistically different between training groups using the standard and prototype device. Functional Imaging Analysis of Mucociliary Clearance after Intrapulmonary Percussive Ventilation (IPV). We prospectively recorded activity events and adverse events. FLUTTER is a device that is claimed to combine oscillating positive expiratory pressure with oscillations of the airflow. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. The control group did not have exercise training in the hospital or at home. Thirty-four patients with significant COPD were recruited for the study. On-call physical therapy included providing respiratory physical therapy as required by the patient out of business hours. A key aspect of the program is improving independence early in the program through the use of mobile ventilators. On ten consecutive days, patients in the training group performed a 6-min treadmill walking test and, in addition, five walking sessions per day at > or = 75% of the respective treadmill walking distance. Five moderate to severe COPD patients (three females and two males; mean forced expiratory volume in 1 second of 39.49% predicted) who were admitted in the hospital for an acute exacerbation were included in this study. Pavia D, Webber B, Agnew JE, et al. Technology assessment programme 2006. BACKGROUND—Pulmonary rehabilitation programmes improve the health of patients disabled by lung disease but their cost effectiveness is unproved. asthma, bronchiectasis, alveolar-cell carcinoma). These findings are encouraging for the clinical use of respiratory acoustics. Chest physiotherapy (the forced expiration technique, FET, and postural drainage, PD) is effective in clearing central and peripheral secretions and can be self-employed. The active cycle of breathing exercises. Weighted mean differences for the St. Georges Respiratory Questionnaire total score, impacts and activities domains were -11.1 (95% CI -17.1 to -5.2), -17.1 (95% CI -23.6 to -10.7) and -9.9 (95% CI -18.0 to -1.7). We conclude that inspiratory muscle training in addition to cycle ergometer train- ing, can intensify the beneficial effects of cycle ergometer training on exercise per- formance in COPD patients. A Systematic Review, Effects of Expiratory Muscle Training and Pursed-Lips Breathing on Health Status and Dyspnea among Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Patients, Preliminary study: comparative effects of lung volume therapy between slow and fast deep-breathing techniques on pulmonary function, respiratory muscle strength, oxidative stress, cytokines, 6-minute walking distance, and quality of life in persons with COPD, Effect of Artificial Respiratory Muscle Training in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Comparative Study on Effects of Active Cycle of Breathing Technique and Manual Chest Physical Therapy after Uncomplicated Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting Surgery, Effects of a Simple Prototype Respiratory Muscle Trainer on Respiratory Muscle Strength, Quality of Life and Dyspnea, and Oxidative Stress in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Patients: A Preliminary Study, Computerized Respiratory Sounds: Novel Outcomes for Pulmonary Rehabilitation in COPD, Inspiratory Muscle Training and Arterial Blood Oxygen Saturation in Patients With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Acute effects of intrapulmonary percussive ventilation in COPD patients assessed by using conventional outcome parameters and a novel computational fluid dynamics technique, The effects of ĝ€on-call/out of hoursĝ€™ physical therapy in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A randomized controlled trial. The aim of this review is to give an overview of the available evidence for the use of different airway clearance techniques (ACT) and their effects in patients with COPD. At the end of two months, the qualities of life in both groups were measured again. Este profesional, es capaz de liderar procesos de evaluación de la condición inicial y seguimiento del paciente con EPOC, educación y manejo de la patología, prescripción de planes individualizados de intervención que mejoren la calidad de vida y logren la independencia funcional de los pacientes, ... En relación con los componentes de los PRP, el enfoque multidisciplinario donde el fisioterapeuta hace parte, ... As exacerbations and hospitalizations represent an important drive of the cost and morbidity of COPD, high priority should be given to interventions aimed at delaying the progression of disease, preventing exacerbations and reducing the risk of co-morbidities to alleviate the clinical and economic burden of disease (6). This study examined the effect of pulmonary rehabilitation on some physiologic variables in COPD patients recovering from an episode of acute respiratory failure. Until 6 months after discharge, lung function, exercise performance and symptom scores were assessed. Exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are associated with muscle atrophy and yet many patients do not undergo pulmonary rehabilitation until they have been in stable health for some time. In all trials, rehabilitation improved exercise capacity (64-215 meters in six-minute walk tests and weighted mean difference for shuttle walk test 81 meter, 95% CI 48-115). Rehabilitation of ventilator-dependent subjects with lung diseases. Respiratory muscle strength (maximal inspiratory pressure [PImax] and maximal expiratory pressure [PEmax]), lung function (forced vital capacity [FVC], percentage of FVC, forced expiratory volume in 1 second [FEV1], percentage of FEV1 [FEV1%], and FEV1/FVC), 6-minute walking distance (6MWD), QOL, and oxidative stress markers (total antioxidant capacity [TAC]), glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and nitric oxide (NO) were evaluated before and after 6 weeks of training. A single centre, randomised controlled trial. The crucial role of the emergency musculature in the neck and upper thorax in the production of dyspnea in patients having chronic obstructive lung disease was clarified by these studies. At discharge, 6 MWD results were significantly improved (p < .001) in Group A only. Twenty-nine inpatients were randomly assigned to a training group (n = 15, FEV1 34% pred) or a control group (n = 14, FEV1 38% pred). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterised by intractable dyspnoea, reduced functional capacity and episodes of acute exacerbation. Many studies were limited to short-term outcomes such as sputum clearance with a single treatment session. 4. We excluded studies from meta-analysis when data were lost or study design precluded comparison. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of artificial respiratory muscle training (ARMT) on respiratory muscle function and exercise performance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Seven patients showed striking relief of dyspnea in the leaning forward position, and 3 of these obtained relief upon lying supine as well. Local resistances, calculated for the three-dimensional models, showed local changes in airway resistance.Conclusion: The effects of a single IPV session can be visualized by functional imaging. We found a small but significant improvement in discharge pulmonary function and arterial blood gas results. The mean number of expiratory crackles (-0.8, 95% CI -1.3 to -0.3) and inspiratory wheeze occupation rate (median 5.9 vs 0) were significantly lower immediately post-PR. In five tracheostomized patients, breathing pattern and mechanics were assessed by means of a pneumotachograph/pressure transducer connected to an oesophageal balloon. 19. The initial IMST pressure was 7 +/- 3 cm H(2)O, and it was increased to 18 +/- 7 cm H(2)O (p < 0.05). Management Based on the principles of Prevention of further progress of disease Preservation and enhancement of pulmonary functional capacity Avoidance of exacerbations in order to improve the quality of life. The difference between the mean cost of 12 months of care for patients in the rehabilitation and control groups (incremental cost) and the difference between the two groups in quality adjusted life years (QALYs) gained (incremental utility) were determined. Adjusted associations between physical activity and hospital admissions for COPD and mortality were obtained using negative binomial and Cox regression models, respectively. The patients divided randomly into two groups (40 patients in case group and 40 patients in control group). Recent studies show that pulmonary rehabilitation leads to improvement in exercise tolerance, quality of life, daily functioning, psychosocial and cognitive functioning, as well as an increase in the sense of self-control and improvement in capillary density in the muscles under exercise, which can result in fewer hospital admissions, bed days, the need for health care services, patient dependency, dyspnea and fatigue, and can reduce lactic acid, minute ventilation, and heart rate (10)(11)(12)(13), ... At present, only limited evidence is available for some of the physiotherapeutic techniques used in patients with COPD.2,3 Physiotherapy treatment enhances sputum evacuation, ... 1 At present, only limited evidence is available for some of the physiotherapeutic techniques used in patients with COPD. Collect, analyze, report, and disseminate COPD-related public Study quality was assessed and descriptive information concerning the study populations, interventions, and outcome measurements was extracted. It is a global health issue, with cigarette smoking being an important risk factor universally; other factors, such as exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution, occupational hazards, and infections, are also important. The probability of the cost per QALY generated being below £0 was 0.64. Regular physical therapy and on-call physical therapy was given to two groups of patients with 19 in each arm. Computerized respiratory sounds were sensitive to short- and mid-term effects of PR in subjects with COPD. Supporting techniques such as intrapulmonary percussive ventilation, positive expiratory pressure and non-invasive ventilation have little evidence because of the small number of studies. IMST was provided to 10 consecutive patients (four men, six women; mean [+/- SD] age, 59 +/- 15 years) who had failed to wean from MV by conventional methods for >or= 7 days. Pulmonary and cardiac rehabilitation programs have been recommended in international and national guidelines for managing COPD and CVD. Conclusion Airway clearance is a key component of respiratory physiotherapy management for patients with excess secretions, including patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Specialized physiotherapy treatment and specific exercise Ram FSF, Lightowler JV, Wedzicha JA. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials identified by searches in six electronic databases, contacts with experts, hand-searches of bibliographies of included studies and conference proceedings. All 8 normal subjects and 4 of the 6 patients with COPD showed substantial (2- to 5-fold) increases in delta Edi, the phasic inspiratory amplitude of Edi, on assuming the standing and erect sitting postures. COPD in India – the Silent but Deadly Disease No One Talks About - Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease or COPD in India was the cause of death for over 1 million people in India behind heart disease in 2017. Subjects with COPD who perform some level of regular physical activity have a lower risk of both COPD admissions and mortality. The possibility that benefit may result if resistance training is conducted in a fashion that ensures generation of adequate mouth pressures may be worthy of further study. Oxygen therapy O2 therapy is frequently used in the treatment of COPD another problem associated with hypoxemia. The use of a rollator improves walking distance of patients with COPD through an increased ventilatory capacity and/or better walking efficiency. Exercise performance was evaluated by a 6 min walk test (SWT). Fourteen patients with COPD in stable clinical condition. Maxi- mal sniff assessed oesophageal and transdiaphragmatic pressures served as parameters for global inspiratory muscle strength and diaphragmatic strength, respectively. Winner of the Standing Ovation Award for “Best PowerPoint Templates” from Presentations Magazine. This article describes mechanisms that determine the normal clearance of airway secretions anti methods designed to facilitate secretion elimination for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Both training regimens increased maximal power output and oxygen uptake, but this improvement was significantly greater in the patients with inspiratory muscle training than in those without. All 7 showed paradoxical (inward) inspiratory motion of the abdomen in standing and erect seated postures, which was corrected by assuming the supine and forward leaning positions. Although promising, these preliminary observations must be tested in a controlled trial. Treatment for COPD. There was no significant difference between walks, mean (SD), 298.5 (173.7) PLB and non-PLB; 292.5 (161.9) nor any difference in dyspnoea. The difference in peak expiratory flow rate (Delta peak expiratory flow rate) was seen to be more in the on-call group (120 L/min) when compared to the control group (50 L/min), P =0.002. To evaluate the effects of an early community based pulmonary rehabilitation programme after hospitalisation for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It can be applied as a single technique or as a combination of techniques including intrapulmonary percussive ventilation (IPV). CONCLUSIONS—This outpatient pulmonary rehabilitation programme produces cost per QALY ratios within bounds considered to be cost effective and is likely to result in financial benefits to the health service. Wanke, D. Formanek, H. Lahrmann, H. Brath, M. Wild, Ch. Data were collected by using quality of life questionnaire (SF-12). Using a special gastroesophageal catheter, electromyographic measurements of the diaphragm (Edi) and transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) were taken in the supine, standing, erect sitting, and leaning forward (sitting) positions in 8 normal subjects and 6 patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with marked hyperinflation and low fat diaphragms. Their accessory inspiratory muscle EMG activity was augmented to a significantly greater degree on assuming the standing and erect seated postures when compared to patients who did not experience postural relief. World's Best PowerPoint Templates - CrystalGraphics offers more PowerPoint templates than anyone else in the world, with over 4 million to choose from. The disease severity was evaluated based on spirometry results. Secondary outcome measures included dyspnea, self-reported sputum, FEV1, exercise tolerance, self-reported physical activity, health-related quality of life, and peripheral muscle strength. Background: The expiratory reserve air was decreased in the majority of cases. We assessed the long-term benefits of inspiratory muscle training (IMT) on inspiratory muscle strength, exercise capacity, the perception of dyspnea, quality of life, primary care use, and hospitalizations in patients with significant COPD. Forty-two consecutive COPD patients with FEV(1) < 50% of predicted were randomized into a group that received IMT for 1 year, and a control group that received training with a very low load. Secondary care level, rural hospital. Se conocen los beneficios de los Programas de Rehabilitación Pulmonar (PRP) en pacientes con Enfermedad Pulmonar Obstructiva Crónica (EPOC), pero se desconoce el costo que implica el funcionamiento de un PRP especialmente en el contexto colombiano, dado que depende de sus componentes y del estadio del paciente. 14. Conventional chest physiotherapy techniques (CCPT) have depended upon assistance during treatments, while more contemporary airway clearance techniques are self-administered, facilitating independence and flexibility. From a population-based sample recruited in Copenhagen in 1981-3 and 1991-4, 2386 individuals with COPD (according to lung function tests) were identified and followed until 2000. The role of intermittent positive pressure breathing (IPPB) in bronchial toilet. 1 Each person’s personal COPD treatment plan is unique, because each individual can have a different medical history and set of current symptoms, as well as the severity of their symptoms. RESULTS—Each rehabilitation programme for up to 20 patients cost £12 120. Thirty clinically stable male COPD patients were randomly assigned to AD or the ACBT treatment for a 20-day treatment period. A combination of prescribed and personalised resistance training and aerobic exercise 2. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterised by intractable dyspnoea, reduced functional capacity and episodes of acute exacerbation. Body positioning and diaphragmatic breathing may alter respiratory pattern and reduce dyspnoea in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In patients with COPD, breathing techniques aim to relieve symptoms and ameliorate adverse physiological effects by: 1) increasing strength and endurance of the respiratory muscles; 2) optimizing the pattern of thoracoabdominal motion; and 3) reducing dynamic hyperinflation of the rib cage and improving gas exchange. In eight of these patients, breathing pattern and minute ventilation (V'E) were also assessed by means of a respiratory inductance plethysmography. The effect of body position change was studied in 17 patients with severe disabling chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In 2 of the 6 patients with COPD, the delta Edi did not increase in the erect postures. IMT provides additional benefits to patients undergoing PR program and is worthwhile even in patients who have already undergone a GER program. The results showed that the maximal inspiratory pressure (PImax) and the maximal expiratory pressure (PEmax) were observed to have significantly increased in both the ARMT group and the SRMT group compared with the control group (p < 0.05). From June 1, 2003, through December 31, 2003, we assessed safety and feasibility of early activity in all consecutive respiratory failure patients who required mechanical ventilation for >4 days admitted to our respiratory intensive care unit (RICU). The available evidence indicates that active breathing techniques, such as active cycle of breathing techniques, autogenic drainage and forced expiration, can be effective in the treatment of COPD. A significant decrease of 11.7% occurred in 25 of the total group of 46 cases. A group of international experts in cardiorespiratory physiotherapy came together to rapidly prepare clinical recommendations for physiotherapy management of COVID-19. Kris Ides,1–3 Wim Vos,3,4 Lieve De Backer,2,3 Dirk Vissers,1,2 Rita Claes,2,3 Glenn Leemans,1,2 Kevin Ongena,1 Oswald Peters,5 Wilfried De Backer1–31Department of Health Science, Artesis University College of Antwerp, Merksem, 2Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, 3Department of Respiratory Medicine, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, 4FluidDa.nv, Groeningerlei, Kontich, Belgium, 5AZ Monica, Antwerp, BelgiumObjective: Chest physiotherapy enhances sputum evacuation in COPD patients. In the resource-poor settings, the goal of rehabilitation may be achieved by incorporating regular unsupervised exercise in daily routine. The TTdi of resting ventilation was measured in 20 patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and ranged between 1 and 12% of Pdimax (mean 5%). Ambulation distance on a 6-min walk test was used as an objective measure of functional status. The evidence for passive techniques such as postural drainage and percussion is low. Nutritional status significantly affected diaphragmatic activity (p = 0.004), with participants with normal body mass index (BMI) showing the greatest response to both positioning and diaphragmatic breathing. 2, 13 Patients with COPD who are stable but have persistent hypoxaemia, consistent with a SpO 2 < 92% on pulse oximetry, should be referred to a respiratory physician to assess their need for long-term oxygen therapy. The median 6MWT distance increased significantly with a rollator: 416 m without a rollator (interquartile range [IQR], 396 to 435 m), vs 462 m with a rollator (IQR, 424 to 477 m) [p = 0.04]. Patients were grouped according to the results of their admission room air PCO2. No adverse events occurred. Conclusion: This preliminary study concluded that the application of incentive spirometry with the Voldyne® device via fast deep breathing possibly improved respiratory muscle strength and QoL and reduced inflammatory cytokines, MDA, and NO better than that via slow deep breathing among people with COPD. These reviews raise concerns regarding the lack of evidence to support the various secretion clearance techniques. The primary risk factor for CB is smoking, and up to 25% of long-term smokers will go on to develop COPD. Seventeen subjects (11 males, mean FEV(1 )36.5+/-11.5%) underwent sham inspiratory muscle training (S-IMT) at 10% of maximum inspiratory pressure. 3. Mucus hypersecretion (greater than 25 ml/day) is commonly seen in chronic bronchitis, whereas bronchorrhea (greater than 100 ml/day) is found in other conditions (e.g. 2. Prior to initiating IMST, patients had received MV support for a mean of 34 +/- 31 days. Cough airways obstruction--for "two-phase air-liquid flow". The recommendation that COPD patients be encouraged to maintain or increase their levels of regular physical activity should be considered in future COPD guidelines, since it is likely to result in a relevant public health benefit. To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the author. Little evidence is found for the combined use of active techniques and supporting techniques such as (oscillating) positive expiratory pressure, postural drainage and vibration in COPD patients. The first walk was designed to identify natural PLBs and the next two walks were performed in a random order; ISWT + PLB or ISWT whilst breathing normally. Therefore, (i) significant improvements in exercise performance and Chronic Respiratory Disease Questionnaire (CRQ) scores could be achieved after recovery from an exacerbation and (ii) these improvements were maintained after discharge, when supported by a home-based walking training. Diabetes is a metabolic disorder in which the body is unable to appropriately regulate the level of sugar, specifically glucose, in the blood, either by poor sensitivity to the protein insulin, or due to inadequate production of insulin by the pancreas. To study whether respiratory rehabilitation after acute exacerbation improves prognosis and health status compared to usual care, we quantified its effects using meta-analyses. Oxygen saturation and pulmonary function were measured before, immediately after, and 15 minutes and 1 hour after each treatment. FEV1, FEV1%, 6MWD, TAC, and GSH data did not change statistically. In the normal subjects, delta Pdi, the phasic inspiratory increment in Pdi, was maintained in all 4 postures, whereas in all patients with COPD, it decreased significantly in the erect sitting and standing postures. Exercise performance was evaluated by the distance walked in the shuttle walking test (SWT). Improvements in exercise tolerance, sense of breathlessness, respiratory muscle function, and pulmonary function test values were measured, respectively, by exercise capacity (6-minute walking distance [6MWD]), dyspnea score (Visual Analog Scale [VAS]), maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP), forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), and forced vital capacity (FVC). Technology assessment programme. To determine whether inspiratory muscle training could intensify the known beneficial effects of cycle ergometer training on exercise performance in these patients, we compared the effect of an 8 week inspiratory muscle training com- bined with cycle ergometer training with that of an 8 week cycle ergometer train- ing alone on inspiratory muscle performance and general exercise capacity. Training took place three times a week for 8 weeks and was fully supervised. Por lo anterior, esta revisión abordará la carga económica que representa la EPOC, la organización y componentes de un PRP y se estimarán sus costos en el contexto colombiano. Patients need to have pulmonary rehabilitation to increase respiratory muscle strength. Borg dyspnea scores tended to be lower with a rollator: 6 (IQR, 4 to 7) without a rollator, vs 5 (IQR, 4 to 7) with a rollator (p = 0.10). These data suggested that postural relief of dyspnea may be related to increased efficiency of the diaphragm because of the improved length-tension state. This was accompanied by a significant improvement in the POD and a further significant improvement in the SGRQ score. This preliminary report demonstrates the feasibility of training ventilator-dependent persons to be independent and to participate in their own care in the home. A prospective, randomized study. Sixty-nine COPD patients, mean FEV1 (SD) 1.09 (0.5), age 68 (51-83) were recruited to the study. To compare the short-term effects of postural drainage (PD), oscillating positive expiratory pressure (using the FLUTTER device), and expiration with the glottis open in the lateral posture (ELTGOL) on oxygen saturation, pulmonary function, and sputum production in patients with an acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of an interval-based high-intensity inspiratory muscle training (H-IMT) programme on inspiratory muscle function, exercise capacity, dyspnoea and health-related quality of life (QoL) in subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

c o p d physiotherapy management ppt 2021